Sana Firoozeh; Saeed Anvari
Abstract
Abstract
Women and men differ in their perceptual issues. Various factors, such as physical and social factors, have contributed to this difference. The question arises whether, from the perspective of Islamic philosophy, these perceptual differences stem from the differing natures of women and men ...
Read More
Abstract
Women and men differ in their perceptual issues. Various factors, such as physical and social factors, have contributed to this difference. The question arises whether, from the perspective of Islamic philosophy, these perceptual differences stem from the differing natures of women and men or from their different physiological and social conditions. In other words, do souls possess gender, or are their differences solely due to the bodies they inhabit? According to the view of the corporeality of the soul, a soul that arises from a female body will differ from a soul that arises from a male body. Additionally, based on the view of the spirituality of the soul, the body is the preferred basis upon which the active intellect bestows a specific soul. Therefore, in this view as well, a soul that belongs to a female body will differ from a soul that belongs to a male body. This research demonstrates that according to both perspectives regarding the emergence of the soul from the body and the attachment of the soul to the body, a distinction must be made between female and male souls. In this article, using data collection methods, the foundations and results of Islamic philosophers’ theories in this area have been examined and analyzed. Accordingly, it has been shown that the souls of women and men differ from each other, and their perceptual differences are not solely due to the attachment of the soul (i.e., the body) and social factors. The differences between women and men are not merely the result of incidental matters in the realm of practical intellect.
Introduction
Men and women differ from each other in terms of psychology, upbringing, culture, social roles, and status. These differences have led to the observation of perceptual differences in them on issues such as choosing moral priorities, responding to emotional stimuli, and decision-making and problem-solving. For example, in the female perception, micro-perception and a focus on relationships, empathy, and caring for others are observed, whereas in the male perception, globalism, a focus on rights, fairness, and abstract principles are evident. Now the question arises whether, from the perspective of Islamic philosophers, these perceptual differences are due to the differences in the souls of women and men or to their different physiological and social conditions?
Research Proposal
Since the soul and the body are related to each other, does the external difference between the bodies of men and women affect their souls? In other words, are the souls of men and women the same and have physical and social differences (as accidental factors) caused a difference in perception in them, or have their souls been different from each other since the beginning of creation?
According to Mulla Sadra's transcendental wisdom on the physicality of the soul, the human soul emerges following the development of the body. Therefore, as a rule, physical differences cause the emergence of different souls. Also, because the body is the preferred recipient of the soul from the active intellect, in the view of the spirituality of the soul, a distinction can be made between souls that are rationalized in the female body and souls that belong to the male body. In this article, by examining the results of the views of those who believe in the physicality of the soul and the views of those who believe in the spirituality of the soul, the perceptual difference between men and women has been examined.
Research Objective
This research suggests that, based on both the views of the soul's emergence from the body and the soul's attachment to the body, a distinction must be made between the feminine and masculine aspects of the soul.
Research Method
In this article, using the Method of data collection, the foundations and results of the theories of Islamic philosophers in this field have been traced and analyzed. The spiritual, psychological, and perceptual differences between men and women are rooted in physical (natural) and social (educational) factors. Different approaches to the epistemological differences between men and women in Islamic philosophy can be examined from two perspectives: theoretical reason and practical reason. None of the Muslim thinkers has believed in the equality of men and women for practical and theoretical reasons. Also, no one has believed in the difference in theoretical reason and equality in practical reason, because if someone believes in the difference in theoretical reason between the two, they will also believe in the difference in practical reason. Accordingly, the two remaining approaches are: equality in theoretical reason and difference in practical reason, and difference in theoretical and practical reason.
Interpreters of transcendental wisdom have two different opinions regarding Mulla Sadra's view:
1) Some believe that being male and female is outside the essence of the soul and that this distinction is due to a temporary matter. It does not harm the unity of the nature of men and women, because the categories of being male and being female are not exclusive to humans and exist in animals and plants as well.
2) Others, based on Mulla Sadra's principles, consider gender differences to be an original and inherent matter in the essence of the human soul. Another teaching of transcendental wisdom that reinforces this view is that Mulla Sadra considers appearance to be separate from substance. Consequently, if being female and being male are aspects of the human species, then the essence of women and men will be distinct from each other. Also, the philosophical theories of "the physicality of occurrence and the spirituality of permanence of the soul", "the essential movement of the soul's intensity and the integration of lower levels into its higher levels", and "the unity between the soul and its powers" confirm this idea. Therefore, Mulla Sadra ties the discussion of being male or female to discussions of the nature of the soul. Also, the discussion of the countless types of human reality in Mulla Sadra's works confirms this point that he should, as a rule, also consider women and men to be two different types.
Final Results
The fact that men and women have two different approaches to issues and express their feelings and emotions in distinct ways suggests that they have a different understanding of the world. Their physical differences cause hormonal and temperamental differences that affect their psyche and create two different perceptual approaches in them. Also, the physical differences between men and women cause them to assume different roles in society and thus differ from each other in practical terms. In this article, the physical, cerebral, hormonal, and temperamental differences between women and men, as well as their distinct roles in society, are examined. The perceptual differences between the two perspectives of physicality and the existence and spirituality of the soul are also explored.
Based on the physicality perspective, the existence of the soul, the soul of a woman, and the soul of a man are distinct from one another. Since, based on the essential movement of the soul, there are different stages of perceptual development, the initial perceptual difference between women and men can also be effective in their subsequent perceptual stages. In this view, their different roles in society have a causal effect on their souls. Also, based on the rule of "whoever loses a sense loses a scholar", the difference in the levels of sensory perception of women and men also affects their other perceptions. Therefore, women and men have different perceptions, both theoretically and practically, and can be considered two distinct types.
According to the spiritual view of the existence of the soul, the souls of men and women have different perceptions and mental states due to the differences in their physical bodies. Additionally, the differences in social and natural responsibilities assigned to them, as well as the differences in their levels of sensory perception, also have a causal effect on their souls. In this view, men and women can also be considered different in theoretical and practical reasons.
Kavous Roohi Brandagh; Ismail Shabani Kamran
Abstract
This study examines and critiques the perspectives of scholars such as Shah Waliullah Dehlavi, Mohammed Abed al-Jabri, and Abdolkarim Soroush on the Miraj (Ascension) of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Drawing on Qur'anic exegeses and other critical viewpoints, it evaluates their interpretations. The primary ...
Read More
This study examines and critiques the perspectives of scholars such as Shah Waliullah Dehlavi, Mohammed Abed al-Jabri, and Abdolkarim Soroush on the Miraj (Ascension) of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Drawing on Qur'anic exegeses and other critical viewpoints, it evaluates their interpretations. The primary aim is to attain an accurate and comprehensive understanding of how the Miraj of the Prophet occurred. The research follows a library-based method for data collection and a documentary approach for categorizing and referencing information, relying on scholarly texts, articles, and other credible sources. For analysis, it employs qualitative content analysis, wherein the views of the aforementioned thinkers and various Qur'anic commentators are critically and comparatively examined through logical reasoning and textual evidence. The analysis reveals that the cited scholars interpret the Miraj as a spiritual or visionary experience that occurred during sleep. In contrast, Qur'anic exegetes, especially Allameh Tabataba'i, assert, based on Qur'anic verses, hadiths, and rational foundations, that the Miraj was a real event that occurred in two stages: during sleep and wakefulness. They emphasize that the event had both spiritual and physical dimensions. Conclusion: The study concludes that the views of the aforementioned scholars diverge from those of traditional Qur'anic commentators, particularly Allameh Tabataba'i. These views are critiqued on various grounds, including their inconsistency with the apparent meaning of Qur'anic verses and well-established hadiths, as well as the incompatibility of some of their arguments with rational and philosophical principles.IntroductionThe miracles of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), especially the event of Mi'raj (ascension) mentioned in verses of Surah Al-Isra and An-Najm, have always been a subject of interest for exegetes and researchers in Quranic sciences. However, there are differing views among scholars regarding the nature and quality of this event. Some consider Mi'raj merely a dream, while others believe it was experienced in a waking state. This research examines and critiques the views of scholars such as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi, Muhammad Abed al-Jabri, and Abdolkarim Soroush. Dehlawi considers Mi'raj a dream and attributes many of the prophets' miracles to dreams. Jabri views these events as a type of special revelation understandable within the framework of sleep and dreams. Soroush also considers Isra' and Mi'raj as the Prophet's (PBUH) spiritual experiences in the form of true dreams. In contrast to these views, Allamah Tabataba'i, based on Quranic verses and continuous narrations, considers Isra' and Mi'raj a real event, not merely a dream or spiritual experience, but a physical-spiritual occurrence in a waking state. This research aims to clarify ambiguities and provide a correct and comprehensive understanding of this event by examining the discussed views from Quranic, narrative, and rational perspectives. The main research questions include how scholars and exegetes justify Mi'raj, a comparison of views regarding Mi'raj being awake or asleep, and Allamah Tabataba'i's approach in Al-Mizan to address doubts about Mi'raj.Literature ReviewExtensive studies have been conducted on Isra' and Mi'raj. Among the works close to this research are the article "The Prophet's Mi'raj from the Perspective of Reason and Revelation" by Mohammad Reza Izadpour and the article "Another Look at the Isra' and Mi'raj of the Great Prophet (PBUH)", which have explored this topic from historical, interpretive, and theological perspectives. Given new approaches in Quranic studies and the necessity of analyzing and critiquing doubts surrounding the Prophet's (PBUH) miracles, this research examines and critiques the most important views and objections raised concerning the event of Isra' and Mi'raj in light of Quranic verses, narrations, and rational principles.MethodologyThis research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method. For data collection, a library approach was employed, and for data classification and citation, a documentary method was used. The analysis method is qualitative content analysis, in which the views of scholars (Dehlawi, Jabri, and Soroush) and exegetes (especially Allamah Tabataba'i) are compared with a comparative and critical approach, and are critiqued and examined using logical arguments and textual evidence.ResultsThe analyses conducted show that the discussed scholars (Dehlawi, Jabri, Soroush) consider Mi'raj a spiritual or dream-like experience within the context of sleep. In contrast, Quranic exegetes, especially Allamah Tabataba'i, based on Quranic verses, narrations, and rational principles, consider Mi'raj a real, physical, and spiritual event that occurred in two stages (sleep and waking). The research results indicate a discrepancy between the views of these scholars and those of the exegetes, particularly Allamah Tabataba'i. These views have been criticized from various aspects, including their inconsistency with the apparent meaning of Quranic verses and continuous narrations, and the incompatibility of some of their arguments with rational and philosophical principles. Allamah Tabataba'i considers the occurrence of this event undeniable. Exegetes cite Quranic reasons to prove a physical Mi'raj in a waking state; these include the use of the word "Subhan" (Glory be to Him), which expresses wonder at a great event, not merely a dream. Furthermore, the use of the word "'Abd" (servant), which refers to the combination of body and soul, indicates a physical journey, and the Holy Quran mentions numerous physical miracles for previous prophets, which supports the possibility of the Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) physical Mi'raj. The phrase "Li Nuriyahu min Ayatina" (that We might show him of Our signs) also indicates that the Prophet (PBUH) observed the signs of divine power with his own eyes, which is inconsistent with Mi'raj being purely spiritual. Finally, the implication of the verses regarding the Prophet's (PBUH) eye not swerving or transgressing during Mi'raj confirms real and physical observations.ConclusionThe final conclusion of this text is that the views of the discussed thinkers (Dehlavi, Jaberi, Soroush), who consider the Mi'raj (ascension) to be a spiritual or dream-like experience during sleep, do not align with the perspective of Quranic exegetes, especially Allameh Tabataba'i. Allameh Tabataba'i and other Quranic exegetes assert that the Mi'raj was a real, physical, and spiritual event, citing Quranic evidence to substantiate the physical and actual ascension of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). These differing views are critiqued from various angles, including the literal interpretation of Quranic verses, widely transmitted narrations (mutawatir hadiths), and rational and philosophical principles
mahmood shaloei
Abstract
Ruzbihan Baqli Shirazi was a Persian mystic of the sixth and seventh centuries. His works abound in Quranic verses and hadith in which he communicates his thought dominated by his mystical experience of unveiling (kashf) and spiritual vision (shuhud). He believes in revelation (wahi) as the unseen inspiration ...
Read More
Ruzbihan Baqli Shirazi was a Persian mystic of the sixth and seventh centuries. His works abound in Quranic verses and hadith in which he communicates his thought dominated by his mystical experience of unveiling (kashf) and spiritual vision (shuhud). He believes in revelation (wahi) as the unseen inspiration that prophets receive from God, and he also views unveiling and the spiritual vision of mystics as divine grace and mercy. This study adopts a descriptive-analytical method to examine the concept of revelation and spiritual vision in Ruzbihan Baqli's mysticism. Revelation and revealed knowledge are among the concepts whose perception lies beyond the realm of the senses and are not easily accessible to reason. Since not every man is capable of attaining such knowledge, its obscure aspects are not easily grasped by the intellect. The results indicate that there is a contrast between revelation and mystical unveiling, because prophethood is a divine gift that is not achieved through acquisition. Although the acquisition of excellence by effort makes souls prepared to receive revelation, revelation itself is a divine gift that is not attained by everyone. Humans are capable of reaching the status and stages of unveiling and spiritual vision. If so, the seekers should gauge their unveiling and spiritual vision with the divine revelation and unveiling of prophets and saints, which in some cases requires interpretation, but revelation is an immediate inspiration that is clear and evident in itself and needs no interpretation. In Ruzbihan`s doctrine, revelation is viewed as synonymous with inspiration. IntroductionMysticism is the inner relationship of man with God; in other words, it is the knowledge and worship of God through the purification of the interior, which is called Tazkya. Iranian scholar of Persian Language, Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub (1923-1999), considers mysticism to be knowledge, based on a spiritual and indescribable state in which man feels that he has a direct and immediate connection with the Almighty. Of course, this spiritual feeling is described as a divine state that cannot be defined.Most theologians believe that revelation (Wahi) has a different reality from such inner perceptions and has no similarity with it; however, most sages and mystics believe that revelation is a type of mystical unveiling (kashf) and intuition(shuhud); of course, there are several possibilities about this assumption: followers of divine religions consider their religion and belief to be attributed to God Almighty and have discussed the quality of the relationship between God Almighty and creatures under various headings, including revelation and divine word. Scholars and experts have written various interpretations of revelation, which sometimes overlap with mystical revelation and intuition.Background of the ResearchNo independent research has been conducted so far on the comparison of revelation and intuition in the works of Ruzbihan Baqli, but a few studies have been conducted on revelation and intuition in Ruzbihan's perspective and the reality of revelation in other scholars` doctrine, some instances are:1- "Revelation in the mystical nature of Ruzbihan Baqli", Elham Tamaddon and Mohammad Reza Nasr Esfahani, Shiraz University, Quarterly Journal of Religious Thought, Volume 18, Issue 69, December 2018, pp. 29-52. The results indicate that Ruzbihan categorizes revelation into three types: revelation of divine essence, divine attributes and acts and its instances and signs.2- “The Nature of Apostolic Revelation and Its Relation with Mystical Intuition According to MullaṢadra”, Mohammad Mahdi Alimardi and Zeinab Artidar, Bi-Quarterly Journal of Shia Studies, Volume 10, Issue 26, Spring and Summer 2024, pp. 7-38. The results indicate that a key principle in Mulla Ṣadra's philosophy is substantial motion (al-ḥarakat al-jawhariyya). He argues that through this motion, humans evolve and progress through necessary stages to reach the ultimate truth. According to Mulla Ṣadra, those who perfect their theoretical and practical faculties can experience the intuition of God’s beauty, akin to the Prophet, and thus engage directly with divine light. Research MethodThis study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach, and a documentary-library research method was used to explore the studies carried out previously. It is obvious that in this method, an attempt was made to carefully examine and analyze the opinions and theories of experts and to provide lexical and terminological definitions for each of its words applied. ConclusionRuzbihan Baqli Shirazi was a Persian mystic whose works abound in Quranic verses and hadith in which he communicates his thoughts dominated by his mystical experience of unveiling and intuition.He believes in revelation as the unseen inspiration that prophets receive from God, and he also views mystic unveiling and intuition as divine grace and mercy.Revelation and revealed knowledge are among the concepts whose perception lies beyond the realm of the senses and are not easily accessible to reason. Since not every man is capable of attaining such knowledge, its obscure aspects are not easily grasped by the intellect. The results indicate that there is a contrast between revelation and mystical unveiling, because prophethood is a divine gift that is not achieved through acquisition. Although the acquisition of excellence by effort makes souls prepared to receive revelation, revelation itself is a divine gift that is not attained by everyone. Humans are capable of reaching the status and stages of unveiling and intuition. If so, the seekers should gauge their unveiling and intuition with the divine revelation and unveiling of prophets and saints, which in some cases requires interpretation, but revelation is an immediate inspiration that is clear and evident in itself and needs no interpretation. In Ruzbihan`s doctrine, revelation is viewed as synonymous with inspiration.
Mahmoud Fishing; MAJID BEIGY; Saleh Hassanzadeh
Abstract
The scholars of Hadith believe that God changes with respect to the perception and belief of believers. Ibn Arabi accepted the idea of God's vision from the Ash'arite theologians and, in an innovative approach, added the theory of divine transformation in the form of beliefs and beliefs of believers. ...
Read More
The scholars of Hadith believe that God changes with respect to the perception and belief of believers. Ibn Arabi accepted the idea of God's vision from the Ash'arite theologians and, in an innovative approach, added the theory of divine transformation in the form of beliefs and beliefs of believers. The basis of this theory is a hadith that has been narrated in the Sunni sources of narration and has generally become one of the beliefs of the scholars of Hadith. This article aims to criticize and examine this theory based on Shiite theological principles in order to accurately explain Shiite beliefs using a descriptive analytical method in a comparative approach. It analyzes and examines the theory of God's transformation in the thought of the scholars of Hadith and Ibn Arabi, and then criticizes it with the Imami theological principles. The findings of the research show that the hadith of transformation is not reliable because it is not narrated in Shiite sources and all its attributions end with Abu Hurairah and it contradicts rational arguments and Quranic principles. The results of the discussion are as follows: The theory of transformation is not compatible with the principle of God's being abstract and not corporeal. Also, Ibn Arabi and his commentators consider fixed objects to be necessary for God's transformation. However, the fixed objects, due to their stability and lack of change, correspond to the stability and uniformity of God's manifestations and do not change according to the beliefs of believers.
Introduction
The existence of a singular and unique God constitutes the foundation of religious belief systems; without such a conviction, the faith-based doctrines of monotheistic religions would be rendered meaningless. From an ontological perspective, God is the creator and sustainer of all beings, managing the affairs of existence. In various Islamic theological and philosophical schools, all beings are seen as ontologically dependent upon God—a notion strongly emphasized in religious teachings.
Literature Review
Great Muslim thinkers have generally examined the relationship between believers and the Creator from an ontological standpoint, and rarely have they addressed the relation between this existential need and the specific beliefs held by the faithful about God. This has left several questions open regarding the nature of the relationship between God and His creation. According to Ibn ʿArabī, the relation between the Creator and the created is not limited to ontology; rather, God manifests to each believer in accordance with their faith. On this basis, he formulated the doctrine of Divine transformation relative to the beliefs of the faithful.
Methodology
This article seeks to critique and evaluate this theory based on Shiʿi theological foundations. Through a descriptive-analytical method with a comparative approach, the study first examines the ḥadīth cited by Ibn ʿArabī in terms of its chain of transmission and textual content. It then proceeds to assess and critique his theory in light of Imāmī theological principles.
Conclusion
The theory of Divine transformation, according to the faith of believers, is one of Ibn ʿArabī’s innovative doctrines. He accepted the concept of Divine vision from the Ashʿarite theologians, but also introduced a new dimension—that God appears to individuals according to their beliefs. The basis of this idea lies in a ḥadīth found in Sunni collections and largely accepted by Ḥadīth-based scholars. However, all versions of this narration trace back to Abū Hurayrah, who claimed to have received it from the Prophet (PBUH); this chain renders the narration unreliable. Moreover, such narrations are absent from Shiʿi ḥadīth sources. The content of the ḥadīth also contains rational inconsistencies and contradicts the fundamental tenet of God’s immateriality and incorporeality, especially as the beginning of the narration implies a bodily vision of God in the hereafter.
Ibn ʿArabī and his commentators interpret the immutable archetypes (aʿyān thābita) as the basis for Divine transformation. However, due to their fixed and unchanging nature, these archetypes necessitate stable and consistent manifestations of the Divine, not variable ones based on individual beliefs. The Divine manifestation to any being occurs strictly in accordance with its own archetype, and no other form of theophany is possible for that being. Therefore, if God were to appear to a believer in a form that diverges from the requisites of their own archetype—as claimed by Ibn ʿArabī and his followers—this would entail that God manifests contrary to His own essential knowledge, and that His knowledge does not correspond to reality or actual being. Hence, accepting the theory of Divine transformation relative to the beliefs of the faithful leads to an internal contradiction within Ibn ʿArabī’s mystical system—one that remains unresolved.
.
Fardin Darabi Meydani; Mohammad Shabanpour
Abstract
The issue of the eternity of punishment in the hereafter is one of the significant and challenging topics in Islamic sciences, including theology, philosophy, and exegesis. This subject has consistently attracted the attention of scholars due to its deep connection with fundamental concepts such as divine ...
Read More
The issue of the eternity of punishment in the hereafter is one of the significant and challenging topics in Islamic sciences, including theology, philosophy, and exegesis. This subject has consistently attracted the attention of scholars due to its deep connection with fundamental concepts such as divine mercy, justice, and human nature. Theologians regard God as the absolute good, self-sufficient, and possessing vast mercy; meanwhile, human nature, according to the verse “And I breathed into him of My Spirit”, is rooted in the divine essence. Consequently, human errors are perceived as incidental issues that merely add impurities to one’s nature, and after punishment, a person returns to their original pure nature. However, some Islamic scholars, citing religious texts and prophetic teachings, do not see a need for eternal punishment and challenge this viewpoint. While some Islamic thinkers do not find a necessity for eternal punishment, this interpretation conflicts with divine revelation and prophetic teachings. The aim is to elucidate this issue and resolve the apparent contradiction. The research method is “content analysis”, which examines foundations such as the acceptance of the existence of the soul, its immateriality, and the eternity and immortality of the soul. Ibn Arabi emphasizes the concept of the unity of existence and divine mercy, asserting that eternal punishment does not exist for anyone, and ultimately, all creatures will return to God’s mercy. He believes that human errors, as incidental issues, cannot have a permanent impact on the divine nature of humans, and punishment is, in fact, a stage of spiritual evolution. In contrast, Allameh Tabatabai emphasizes the eternity of punishment based on rational and textual arguments, considering it compatible with divine justice. He posits that punishment and reward in the hereafter depend on the states of the soul, and if the soul becomes a permanent quality, punishment will be eternal. Although these two viewpoints differ in their general principles, each contributes to elucidating various aspects of the issue of the eternity of punishment, demonstrating that this topic requires not only a deeper understanding of religious teachings but also philosophical and theological reflections.
Introduction
The issue of the eternity of punishment and the immortality of the soul is a complex and fundamental topic in Islamic theology that has consistently attracted the deep attention of thinkers and scholars. The essential question of whether divine punishment for sinners is permanent has been examined not only in religious texts but also in Islamic philosophy and mysticism. In this context, Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai, as two prominent Islamic figures, have each analyzed this subject from their unique perspectives.
Ibn Arabi, one of the greatest Islamic mystics, presents a distinctive theory regarding the eternity of punishment. He emphasizes the concept of the unity of existence and divine mercy, asserting that ultimately all creatures will return to God’s mercy and that eternal punishment does not exist for anyone. This viewpoint has profoundly influenced Islamic mystical and philosophical thought and has led to various interpretations of verses and traditions.
On the other hand, Allameh Tabatabai, one of the foremost contemporary commentators and philosophers, analyzes the verses of the Quran and the teachings of the Imams regarding the eternity of punishment in his commentary “Al-Mizan”. He believes that several verses in the Quran emphasize the permanence of punishment, which is compatible with divine justice. Through precise textual analysis, Allameh Tabatabai seeks to elucidate the concepts of punishment and reward and their connection to divine will.
Prominent Islamic thinkers like Jorjani and Hilli emphasize that the soul, as an independent and immaterial essence, is immortal. This theory is based on several premises: first, the acceptance of the existence of the soul; second, its essence and immateriality; and third, the immortality of the soul.
Disagreements among Islamic scholars regarding the issue of eternal punishment in Hell relate to the relevant verses and traditions. Some Quranic verses explicitly affirm eternal punishment, such as:
Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:162: “And whoever wants to be punished, for him is Hell.”
Surah Al-Imran, 3:88: “Indeed, those who disbelieved and died while they were disbelievers, upon them is the curse of Allah and the angels and the people altogether.”
Surah An-Nisa, 4:169: “Indeed, those who disbelieved and died while they were disbelievers, they are the worst of creatures.”
Surah An-Nahl, 16:29: “So taste [the punishment], and We will not increase you except in punishment.”
Surah Hud, 11:106-108: “But as for those who are wretched, they will be in the Fire, they will have therein a moaning and a shriek; they will be eternally therein, as long as the heavens and the earth endure, except what your Lord wills.”
Conversely, some verses limit eternity to a specific duration, indicating that some sinners may be released from punishment after a period.
Traditions also support both theories. For instance, a narration from Imam Baqir (AS) states that the last person to exit Hell will be a man who has spent a long time there and only mentions God’s name, emphasizing that no one remains in Hell forever, while other traditions present eternal punishment as a permanent reality.
ObjectiveThis article aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the views of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai regarding the eternity of punishment. The research examines the theological and philosophical foundations of each thinker and seeks to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their theories. Furthermore, it explores the impact of these views on contemporary understanding of punishment and reward concepts in Islam. Given the importance of this topic in Islamic theology and its implications for religious and ethical beliefs, this research can contribute to a better understanding of the issue of eternal punishment and its effects on Islamic thought.
Using a “content analysis” method, the study investigates and analyzes the perspectives of these two prominent Islamic thinkers, Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai. This research seeks to demonstrate how these two thinkers analyze the issue of eternity and what theological and philosophical foundations they rely on to understand religious texts regarding eternity. Examining this topic not only aids in a better understanding of eternity in Hell and Paradise but may also expand philosophical and mystical horizons in Islamic thought.
Research Background
Numerous studies have been written regarding the views of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai. Some notable works include:
An article titled “Eternity in Punishment from the Perspective of Mulla Sadra and Ibn Arabi” by Mohammad Haidari Fard and Mohammad Kazem Farghani, published in the journal “Philosophical Studies of Religion”. This article examines and analyzes the views of Mulla Sadra and Ibn Arabi on the eternity of punishment and elucidates key concepts related to this topic, including their philosophical and mystical influences.
A thesis titled “Critique and Analysis of Ibn Arabi’s Theory on the Issue of Eternity in Hell from the Perspective of Allameh Tabatabai”, written by Maryam Alidoust at the Amol School of Islamic Sciences. This research provides a detailed analysis of the theories of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai regarding eternal punishment and the fate of those in Hell.
A thesis titled “Examining the Issue of Eternity with Emphasis on the Views of Allameh Tabatabai, Ibn Arabi, Fakhr Razi, and Zamakhshari”, written by Sara Miraji at Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University. This research deeply explores the issue of eternity and immortality in punishment and reward in the afterlife and critiques various Islamic scholars’ views on this matter.
While the aforementioned articles and theses primarily focus on affirming or rejecting the issue of eternity in punishment from the perspectives of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai, this research will specifically investigate the theological foundations of this issue from the viewpoints of these two Islamic thinkers. Thus, this research provides a more precise analysis of the theoretical and theological foundations of this topic that has not been comprehensively addressed in previous works, highlighting the novelty and significance of this study on the eternity of punishment and the comparative analysis of the views of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai.
Conceptual Framework
To conduct a comparative analysis of the eternity of punishment from the perspectives of Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai, it is first necessary to examine three concepts: “eternity,” “theoretical foundations,” and “theological and philosophical.”
Eternity: Derived from the root خ ل د“”, it is understood by some linguists as permanence and continuity. The term خلود“” signifies being far from corruption and enduring in the state it previously was. This study adopts the first meaning, referring to eternity and immortality, as it is the focal point of contention among theologians.
Theoretical Foundations: “Foundation” refers to the basis or groundwork of an argument. In this research, the theoretical foundations are those scientific propositions discussed in theology or philosophy that serve as the basis for affirming or rejecting the issue of eternity.
Theological and Philosophical Foundations: The issue of eternity in punishment, a significant topic in the afterlife, relies on numerous foundations that can be explored in various fields, including Quranic studies, principles of jurisprudence, hadith sciences, literature, philosophy, and theology.
Theological and Philosophical Foundations of Ibn Arabi
Ibn Arabi, one of the greatest Islamic thinkers and mystics, addresses the topic of eternity in punishment in his works. His views are shaped by his philosophical and mystical foundations, including:
Unity of Existence: A key principle in Ibn Arabi’s philosophy, this theory posits that all beings are manifestations of the one divine existence.
Divine Mercy: Ibn Arabi asserts that God’s mercy prevails over His wrath, encompassing all creatures.
Mystical Experience: He emphasizes that understanding punishment and reward in the afterlife is closely related to the understanding and recognition of God.
Repentance and Return: He believes that the possibility of repentance and returning to God exists for all servants, which can lead to liberation from punishment.
Ibn Arabi argues that punishment in Hell may be temporary for some sinners, as ultimately all creatures will return to divine mercy. He points out that punishment can be viewed as a stage of spiritual evolution. His views on eternity and divine mercy are deeply philosophical and mystical, but face criticism based on religious texts and principles of divine justice.
Theological and Philosophical Foundations of Allameh Tabatabai
Allameh Tabatabai emphasizes the role of revelation and religious texts in understanding the afterlife and its details. He believes that one cannot comprehend the specifics of the afterlife solely through rational premises and relies on divine revelation for validation. He presents arguments for the eternity of punishment based on both rational and textual evidence, affirming that the verses of the Quran explicitly indicate the permanence of punishment.
Textual Evidence: Allameh cites Quranic verses that clearly affirm eternal punishment, such as Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:167, and highlights the absence of traditions contradicting this view.
Rational Evidence: He argues that the nature of the soul and its conditions in the afterlife are influenced by its actions in this world, which determines whether it experiences punishment or reward.
ConclusionThe issue of the eternity of punishment and the immortality of the soul is a complex and fundamental topic in Islamic theology that has consistently attracted the deep attention of thinkers. Ibn Arabi and Allameh Tabatabai, as two prominent Islamic figures, have each addressed this subject from their unique perspectives. Ibn Arabi emphasizes the unity of existence and divine mercy, believing that there is no permanent punishment for sinners and that ultimately all creatures will return to God’s mercy. In contrast, Allameh Tabatabai affirms the eternity of punishment based on the verses of the Quran and traditions, asserting that the details of the afterlife can only be understood through revelation. Both viewpoints face criticisms; the critiques of Ibn Arabi point to conflicts with religious texts and divine justice, while Allameh Tabatabai also encounters challenges in explaining the concept of eternal punishment. The findings of the research indicate that philosophical and theological foundations, such as the acceptance of the existence of the soul and its immortality, play a crucial role in the belief in the eternity of punishment. Additionally, Allameh Tabatabai emphasizes that reason is subordinate to revelation in understanding the details of the afterlife, while Ibn Arabi is compelled to reinterpret the Quranic verses to reconcile his views. These issues highlight the diversity and complexity of perspectives in Islamic theology and underscore the need for further examination in this area.
Hoseyn Arefiniya; Mohammad Rezapoor; Mostafa Soltani
Abstract
How human beings will be resurrected in the Day of Resurrection is one of the most important topics related to resurrection in Islamic religions. This article, by collecting information in a library method, in an analytical-comparative method, is the answer to the question that from the perspective of ...
Read More
How human beings will be resurrected in the Day of Resurrection is one of the most important topics related to resurrection in Islamic religions. This article, by collecting information in a library method, in an analytical-comparative method, is the answer to the question that from the perspective of Imamiyyah and Matridiyyah, will the resurrection of man on the Day of Resurrection be in the form of restoration of the destroyed object or will it be the gathering of scattered parts, together with the soul and soul?The purpose of the research is to create a platform for interaction and rapprochement between these two religions . Based on the findings of this research, most of Imamiyya theologians believed in the refusal to restore the dead, and as a result, the human being will be transported in the resurrection in the form of the transfer of the same elemental components, along with the soul and the soul. Unlike a small number of Imami theologians and the majority of Matridiyyah theologians, they believe in the permissibility of returning the annihilated, and as a result, the gathering of all human elements in the resurrection by God's perfect power, will be of annihilation and absolute nothingness.
Introduction
The issue of how the earthly body is resurrected in the afterlife has long been of interest to various schools and sects. Among them, the two theological schools of Imamiyyah and Matridayyyah have emphasized the eternal life of man in the afterlife. However, the fundamental difference lies in the manner in which the earthly body is resurrected to the afterlife, and the secret of this conflict lies in the return of the topic of resurrection to transcendental and non-sensuous matters that human science has not yet been able to explore in detail. (Fayyad Lahiji, Beta: 1/15)
The two theological schools of Imamiyyah and Matridayyyah have had many things in common in most theological discussions, including adherence to narration and reason. Meanwhile, in some of the doctrinal issues between the two sects, including resurrection and the return of the extinct and the discussions surrounding it, no detailed and in-depth work has been done; therefore, this factor can be recognized as one of the reasons for the existence of a knowledge gap between these two sects; because responsibility and belief in the resurrection among the followers of these two schools can be a powerful lever in warding off evil and criminal acts; therefore, expressing the various angles of the resurrection can lead to the advancement of comparative and approximate studies among a significant range of Sunni Hanafi Matridi and Shia Twelvers.
Meanwhile, the main research question between the Imamiyyah and the Matridiyyah is whether the resurrection of man in the resurrection is in the form of a return of the annihilated or not? That is, will the return of man on the resurrection be from annihilation and absolute nothingness, or will the return of man be in the form of a collection of scattered parts in the world?
Using the analytical-comparative method, this research seeks to compare and contrast the views of the theologians of the two Imamiyyah and Matridiyyah schools on the manner of resurrecting man in the refusal to return the annihilated or its permissibility. Most Imamiyyah have argued in the discussion of the resurrection and the discussions around it, such as the permissibility or refusal of the return of the annihilated, using two narrative-rational methods; because in their doctrinal discussions, especially on the resurrection, they have used rational arguments in addition to narration (Mutahari, 1376: 3/92-95; Jibraeli, 1398: 59-65 and 273-283 and 289-290). However, most of the Matridi scholars are right. In most of their doctrinal discussions, they have also relied on reason in addition to narration. However, in the discussion of the resurrection and the discussions surrounding it, such as the return of the dead, they have been completely "narrative-oriented" and have only paid attention to auditory arguments, because from the perspective of this group, the discussions of the resurrection and its surroundings are beyond the reach of reason. (Matridi, 1427: 6-8; Samarqandi, 1440: 183; Nasafi, 1432: 428; Ibn Hammam, 2005: 140) For example, Najm al-Din Omar Nasafi, Abu al-Barakat Nasafi, and Ibn Kamal Pasha state in this regard: Many scholars of the Matridis school are silent on the extent and quality of the restoration of bodies and have generally agreed on accepting the restoration of bodies, whether it is restoration in the separation and addition of parts, or restoration from the non-existent; because they consider this discussion to be from narrations and they believe whatever the Quran and narrations indicate about it. (Nasfi, Bita: 108-110; Nasfi, 1432: 436-440; Ibn Kamal Pasha, 1430: 129) Therefore, in this article, first, the refusal or permissibility of restoring the extinct is examined from the perspective of the Imamiyyah and the Matridayyyah. Then, after determining the permissibility or refusal of restoring the extinct, the results and consequences of each of the views are discussed from the perspective of the two theological sects.
Background
Many studies have been conducted on the issue of the return of the dead and the manner of human resurrection, some of the most important of which are:
1- The article "The role of the issue of the return of the dead in the disputes of Islamic sects regarding the doctrine of bodily resurrection" by Ali Ma'mouri. In this article, the author examines the refusal or permissibility of the return of the dead from the perspective of some Ash'arite scholars such as Fakhr al-Razi, some philosophers such as Ibn Sina, and some philosopher-theologians such as Khwaja Nasir, Mulla Sadra, and Allama Tabataba'i.
2- The article "A Study of the Return of the Dead from the Perspective of Islamic Theologians and Philosophers" by Ali Zia'i. In this article, the author first defines the return of the dead, then refers to the proponents of the permissibility and refusal of the return of the dead and their arguments from the perspective of some Ash'arite, Mu'tazilite, and Imamite scholars, and some scholars of the Mash'a and Transcendental Wisdom schools.
3- The article “Revelationary Criticism and Analysis of the Assumption of the Extinction of Resurrection” by Seyyed Hassan Batha’i Golpayegani, the author in this article has responded to the suspicion of the assumption of the extinction of death; therefore, to move on to a clear answer, he first addressed the conceptualization of the assumption of the extinction, then the integration of the scattered elements, then he examined and analyzed the relationship between the assumption of the extinction and resurrection from the perspective of Imamiyyah theologians and some Ash’arites, as well as philosopher-theists of the Imamiyyah tradition such as Khwaja Nasir and Mulla Sadra, and Mohaqiq Sabzevari. Then he criticized and analyzed the suspicion of the extinction with the verses of the Quran; and finally, he came to the conclusion that the afterlife of man was not an example of the assumption of the extinction of death; so that the suspicion of the extinction of death was created.
However, the advantage of the present research is that this article has considered and analyzed the issue of refusal and permissibility of the assumption of the extinction, as well as the transfer of the essence or likeness of the main and secondary elements from the perspective of the Imamiyyah and the Matridayyyah in a comparative manner; while the above studies, firstly, have not discussed the issue of nullification from the perspective of the Imamiyyah and the Matridayyyah, and secondly, they have not analyzed and examined the quality of the transfer of the same or similar main and secondary components in the discussion of the permissibility or refusal of nullification between the two schools of thought of the Imamiyyah and the Matridayyyah, or have paid less attention to this question with this approach. Thirdly, also, considering the examination conducted in the Matridayyyah school, no significant research has been seen on the issue of nullification; this reason could be another advantage of this study.
Fatemeh Taherizadeh; Mohammad Moeini far
Abstract
Imam al-Sajjad ('a), during one of the most critical periods in Islamic history—the post-Karbala era under the despotic rule of the Umayyad regime—took significant steps to preserve and expand the school of Shi‘ism through the strategic use of taqiyya (dissimulation). With a profound ...
Read More
Imam al-Sajjad ('a), during one of the most critical periods in Islamic history—the post-Karbala era under the despotic rule of the Umayyad regime—took significant steps to preserve and expand the school of Shi‘ism through the strategic use of taqiyya (dissimulation). With a profound understanding of the prevailing political and social pressures, he employed taqiyya not merely as a means of personal protection but as a calculated method to safeguard Shi‘a teachings, preserve the knowledge of the Ahl al-Bayt ('a), and lay the cultural and intellectual foundations for future generations. This study, based on a descriptive-analytical approach and library research method, examines the role of taqiyya in Imam al-Sajjad’s ('a) struggle and illustrates how he utilized this approach to counter political and ideological oppression while promoting religious teachings, training disciples, and compiling elevated Islamic knowledge. In the final section, the paper addresses a common Sunni objection regarding the apparent contradiction and duality in taqiyya-related traditions, providing a documented and analytical response. Ultimately, this research seeks to demonstrate that taqiyya, in the context of Imam al-Sajjad’s ('a) life, functioned not only as a defensive tactic but also as part of an active, deliberate cultural and religious strategy.
Mohammad Sadeq Kamelan; Saeid ZiyaeiFar; Amirhossein Safahosseini
Abstract
The problem of this article is semantics and discussion of the ontology of meaning. In fact, this article deals with the ontological approach in meaning. Existential approach and nonexistent approach. Semantics plays a decisive role in the process of text interpretation and meaning discovery. In this ...
Read More
The problem of this article is semantics and discussion of the ontology of meaning. In fact, this article deals with the ontological approach in meaning. Existential approach and nonexistent approach. Semantics plays a decisive role in the process of text interpretation and meaning discovery. In this article, an argumentative and philosophical method has been tried to examine the viewpoints of two groups of language experts. The arguments and opinions expressed by several groups of experts (philosophers of language on the one hand and fundamental scholars on the other) are criticized and examined. Their differences and commonalities are expressed. The purpose of this article is to examine and explain the ontology of the nature of meaning as the most basic and fundamental philosophical premise that is the basis of other linguistic topics. In the end, the authors present their final point of view by referring to Allameh Gharavi Esfahani's point of view and completing the shortcomings of that theory, as well as linking it with the views of Muslim philosophers about the soul.
maryam alizadeh; zary pishgar
Abstract
Abstract
One of the objectives of the Holy Qur'an is to recognize and know God. To this end, it refers to divine attributes in various instances. However, due to the focus of interpreters on achieving Qur'anic knowledge and uncovering the divine intent of the verses, the semantics of divine attributes ...
Read More
Abstract
One of the objectives of the Holy Qur'an is to recognize and know God. To this end, it refers to divine attributes in various instances. However, due to the focus of interpreters on achieving Qur'anic knowledge and uncovering the divine intent of the verses, the semantics of divine attributes have received less attention. This neglect has sometimes led to overlooking the Qur'an's goal of understanding divine attributes, and in other cases, it has resulted in misunderstandings in comprehending these attributes. This research employs a descriptive-analytical method to comparably examine two of the divine attributes in the Qur'an that are central to proving God's oneness. The findings indicate that the term "أحد" (Aḥad) signifies the simplicity of the essence of the Almighty, and God is free from any components and inward multiplicity. The term "واحد" (Wāḥid), on the other hand, has a broader semantic scope compared to "أحد" and conveys the meaning of negating multiplicity and external plurality regarding God. Through the comparison of these two terms, it becomes clear that both "أحد" and "واحد" are indeed necessary and complementary in describing God's uniqueness and oneness; for by negating inward multiplicity and affirming the simplicity of God,
Introduction
Tawḥīd is the first and most important principle of the Islamic creed, understood as the affirmation of God’s oneness. This principle is the common foundation among all divine religions, and its affirmation was the goal of all the prophets. Although the exact term tawḥīd does not appear in the Qur’an, many verses express and demonstrate this principle using various phrases.
Notably, the description of God’s uniqueness and unity in the Qur’anic verses is most often rendered by the term Wāḥid and, in some cases, by the term Ahad. Since these two words share a common root but differ in form, and given the premise that the Qur’an is the divine Word whose words and expressions are arranged with divine wisdom, the question arises: what semantic difference exists between the terms Wāḥid and Ahad, and how do they each indicate God’s oneness?
Scholars have outlined different kinds and aspects of tawḥīd and its manifestations, but among these classifications, the categories based on Wāḥid and Ahad have received comparatively little attention. This is despite the fact that both terms are considered and distinguished in the Qur’anic verses and in the narrations of the Ahl al-Bayt (peace be upon them), where differences have been noted.
The aim of this study is a comparative examination of the meanings of the terms Ahad and Wāḥid from the perspective of Qur’anic verses, so that by comparing their semantic fields, more precise concepts can be provided. Concretely, this research first investigates the meaning of Ahad in the Qur’an and in narrations, then explores the concept of Wāḥid, and finally analyzes and compares the similarities and differences in meaning between the two terms.
This study aims to answer the following questions:
What is the meaning of the attribute Ahad(أحد) when applied to the Exalted God?
What is the meaning of the attribute Wāḥid(واحد) in reference to God, given its frequent occurrences in the Qur’an?
What are the conceptual differences and points of comparison between these two attributes, and what conclusions regarding the knowledge of divine attributes can be drawn from considering them together in light of Qur’anic verses?
Literature Review
Scholarly background on divine attributes: Researchers in the field of Qur’anic studies have produced a limited number of works on the divine attributes. Notable examples include:
Muhammad-Reza Kashfi, who examined the semantics of divine attributes from the perspective of Allameh Tabataba’i, explained Allameh’s view based on the Transcendent Theosophy (Hekmat-e Motta’aliya).
Amir Khasas, in The Semantics of Divine Attributes from the Viewpoints of Ibn Maimun and Qadi Sa‘id Qummi, compared the two scholars and concluded that Ibn Maimun’s approach to the divine attributes is negational (apophatic), whereas Qadi Sa‘id Qummi’s is affirmational (cataphatic).
Mohammad Zabihi and Azam Iraji-Nia, in their study Ontological Examination of Divine Attributes from the Viewpoint of Ibn Sina with a Critique of Mulla Sadra, while acknowledging Ibn Sina’s precise exposition of divine attributes, criticize Mulla Sadra’s view on the supposed synonymy (convergence) of the attributes.
Hasan Abbasi Hossein-Abadi, in The Ontological Turn toward Divine Attributes in the Theological Thought of Allameh Hilli, explores the relationship between Divine Essence and attributes and explicates Allameh Hilli’s method of integrating theological, philosophical, and hadith-based approaches to prove God’s Essence.
Hossein Alavi-Mehr and Mohammad-Reza Haghighat have treated the semantics of “Ahad” in Sūrat al-Tawḥīdin a study that analyzes the meaning of Ahad in that sūrah exclusively on the basis of narrations (riwāyāt), without comparing it to Wāḥid.
Assessment of the literature: Scholarly background on divine attributes: Research on Qur’anic divine attributes is limited and largely ontological; semantic studies are fewer and often broader. Focused analyses of a single attribute across Qur’anic occurrences are rare. Studies of Ahad typically treat it in isolation (e.g., Sūrat al-Tawḥīd) and rely mainly on narrations without comparing it to Wāḥid.
Contribution and aim: This study fills that gap by semantically analyzing Ahad and Wāḥid as divine attributes in the Qur’an and conducting a comparative assessment that incorporates Shīʿī and Sunnī exegetical views.
Review structure:
Semantics of Ahad(lexicographers; commentators)
Semantics of Wāḥid(lexicographers; commentators)
Comparative study: commonalities and differences (semantics, usage, Qur’anic application)
Methodology
This study was conducted using a descriptive-analytical approach and a comparative method. The procedure was as follows:
The term Ahadwas first examined in early and later lexical sources. Thereafter, its concept was studied in light of the Qur’anic verses in which this term is employed as one of God’s attributes. Exegetical opinions of commentators from both the Shīʿī and Sunnī traditions were collected and analyzed in order to elucidate their meaning.
The same procedure was followed for the term Wāḥid: initially, its occurrences and senses were surveyed in classical and post-classical lexical sources; subsequently, its Qur’anic usages were explicated, and exegetical views regarding its meaning were analyzed.
In the final section, the meanings of the two terms in their respective usages as Ahad and Wāḥid were compared. The comparative study identified points of convergence and divergence in their sense, usage, and Qur’anic employment
Conclusion
After examining the two words Uhud and Wahid and comparing them, we reached the following results:
1- The word Uhud is not used in the singular form in a sentence and must be used in a numerical combination such as Uhud-e-Ash'ar, or an adverb such as Uhud-kam, or an adjective such as Uhud-mankam. However, the word Wahid also comes in both singular and compound forms.
2- The word Uhud must be used in a negative context, in which case it gives the sentence a general meaning, but the word Wahid can be used in both negative and positive contexts.
3- If the word Uhud is a description of God Almighty, it cannot be pluralized in any way, but Wahid itself has the ability to be pluralized.
4- The word Uhud is not used to describe a word, for example, a man is not called Uhud, but Wahid can be used to describe any word, for example, a dirham of Wahid.
5- Both words are part of the divine attributes, with the difference that one indicates the negation of multiplicity within the essence and the absence of parts, while one indicates the negation of multiplicity outside the essence and the absence of partners.
6- Each of these two words is necessary and necessary for each other, in the sense that the necessity of the being simple is that it has no partners. In other words, when God is one, he can also be one. On the other hand, an indispensable being can be one who is also one in his essence
Hosain Rezayi; Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Qazvini
Abstract
One of the important topics regarding Imamate is the knowledge and the scope of the knowledge of the infallible Imam. The present research aims to critique and respond to the doubts raised about the equivalence of the knowledge of the Imams with divine knowledge as presented in the book by Qafari. He ...
Read More
One of the important topics regarding Imamate is the knowledge and the scope of the knowledge of the infallible Imam. The present research aims to critique and respond to the doubts raised about the equivalence of the knowledge of the Imams with divine knowledge as presented in the book by Qafari. He attempts to prove, through some written and narrated evidence, the continuity of divine revelation to the twelve Imams according to the belief of the Imamiya after the passing of the Messenger of God (peace be upon him). Ultimately, he concludes that the sciences and the Shariah of the Shia differ from what was originally established in the Prophetic Shariah, and he believes that through this established method, the knowledge of the Imams (peace be upon them) can be considered equivalent to divine knowledge and connected to intrinsic knowledge. He argues that all this information is created for the Imam through means that the Imamiya refers to as “acquired knowledge and entrusted knowledge,” and the realization of this knowledge depends on the will of the Imams. Therefore, revelation for the Imams is not solely at the will of God but also depends on the will of the Imam. However, Shia belief holds that since Imamate, like Prophethood, is a divine office, other attributes and qualities of the Imam, including knowledge and infallibility, must also be conferred by divine authority. Consequently, due to the longer mission compared to the noble life of the Messenger of God, the lack of sufficient time and appropriate conditions, the absence of motivation or the interest to express all rulings, and the occurrence of new events in every era, the necessity of divine knowledge for the Imam is established. This research employs a documentary method combined with description and analysis of data from early Shia and Sunni sources, aiming to dispel the accusations made by Qafari regarding the issue of the knowledge of the Imams (peace be upon them).
Introduction:
One of the key discussions in the doctrine of Imamate is the scope and nature of the infallible Imam’s knowledge. This study aims to critique and respond to the doubts raised by Naser al-Qafari in his book, where he attempts to equate the Imams’ knowledge with divine knowledge. He claims that based on certain narrations, the Imams continued to receive revelation after the Prophet’s death, and thus, Shiite jurisprudence differs from the original Prophetic Sharia. He argues that the Imams’ knowledge is created through means referred to by Shiites as “acquired knowledge” and “deposited knowledge”, and that the realization of such knowledge depends on the Imams’ will. Therefore, revelation to the Imams is not solely dependent on God’s will but also on theirs.
In contrast, Shiite belief holds that Imamate, like Prophethood, is a divine appointment, and all attributes of the Imam—including knowledge and infallibility—must be divinely granted. Due to the extended mission beyond the Prophet’s lifetime, the lack of time and opportunity to convey all rulings, and the emergence of new events in each era, the necessity of divine knowledge for the Imam is affirmed.
Research Methodology
This study uses a documentary method with descriptive and analytical approaches, examining early Shiite and Sunni sources to refute al-Qafari’s accusations regarding the Imams’ knowledge.
Problem Statement
Knowledge of the unseen is exclusive to God, as He alone has complete awareness of all things. Wahhabis and Salafis reject the idea that anyone besides God can possess such knowledge. They claim that Shiite narrations attributing unseen knowledge to the Imams are fabricated. Naser al-Qafari, a staunch Wahhabi, accuses Shiites of polytheism and heresy, asserting that their beliefs are misguided and outside the fold of Islam. In his book Usul Madhhab al-Shi‘a al-Imamiyya al-Ithna ‘Ashariyya, he attacks Shiite beliefs, including the alleged equivalence of divine knowledge and the Imams’ knowledge.
This research responds to his claims using rational and textual evidence, demonstrating that his accusations stem from ignorance of Shiite and even Sunni principles.
Literature Review
While previous works have addressed al-Qafari’s critiques on topics like Mahdism, divine decree (bada’), and taqiyya, none have specifically tackled the issue of unseen knowledge and its alleged equivalence with divine knowledge. This study distinguishes itself by focusing on the metaphysical nature of divine knowledge and its distinction from the Imams’ knowledge, which is granted by divine permission and limited in scope.
Conclusion
Al-Qafari’s claim that the Imams’ knowledge of the unseen stems from Shiite exaggeration and diminishes divine knowledge is unfounded. His arguments are based on misinterpretations and ignorance of Shiite and Sunni texts.
Due to the Prophet’s limited lifespan and the need for continued guidance, the necessity of divine knowledge for the Imams is established. The Imams’ knowledge, whether acquired or deposited, is fundamentally different from God’s intrinsic knowledge and is granted by divine permission.
While knowledge of the unseen is exclusive to God, He may grant glimpses of it to chosen individuals like prophets and Imams based on their spiritual readiness.
The existence of unseen knowledge in humans is not implausible, especially for those divinely appointed and infallible.
According to Shiite and authentic Sunni narrations, Imamate is a divine institution. Therefore, the Imams possess attributes similar to the Prophet, including infallibility and knowledge of the unseen, granted by God.
ali aqajani
Abstract
Ayatollah Abdullah Javadi Amoli is a contemporary thinker who is an expert in various fields of Islamic humanities, especially political theology. Due to his relative comprehensiveness in theology and processing of political theology issues, as well as his entry into theoretical and practical politics ...
Read More
Ayatollah Abdullah Javadi Amoli is a contemporary thinker who is an expert in various fields of Islamic humanities, especially political theology. Due to his relative comprehensiveness in theology and processing of political theology issues, as well as his entry into theoretical and practical politics as a religious scholar, his scientific personality is worthy of examination and analysis from various dimensions, including influential rival intellectual movements, in order to discover the various dimensions of his political theology. (Objective) Because rival ideas highlight the distinction of the thinker's intellectual system. Accordingly, showing and discovering Javadi Amoli's otherings towards other approaches and the extent of their impact and type of encounter in his view is a research problem (problem) that, in response to the question about the competing intellectual currents influencing Javadi Amoli's political discourse, is based on Skinner's hermeneutics and his concept of mental backgrounds (theoretical framework) and with an analytical-descriptive method (method) on the understanding that six competing knowledge-value currents, including humanism, liberalism, secularism, pluralism, hermeneutics, and the theory of theoretical contraction and expansion of Sharia, as part of mental backgrounds, have influenced Javadi Amoli's political discourse. (hypothesis) Some of the findings of the article about Javadi Amoli's view towards these categories include: extreme humanism in the sense of claiming lordship and the theory of "animalism"; Liberalism means liberalism; secularism means the separation of religion from the world, the separation of religion from social affairs, and the separation of religion from politics; acceptance of salvation pluralism and political pluralism, and rejection of epistemological pluralism in the sense of the simultaneous legitimacy of all religions and schools; rejection of radical philosophical hermeneutics, alignment with classical hermeneutics, and having commonalities with modern hermeneutics; and the need to refine and revive the theory of contraction and expansion due to its many slips. (Findings) Accordingly, analysis and exposure to these schools of thought have played a fundamental role in the formation and development of Javadi Ameli's political discourse, and he has had a critical exposure to the theory of contraction and expansion and then secularism most of all. (Conclusion)
Introduction
Ayatollah Abdullah Javadi Amoli is a contemporary thinker who has spoken and commented in many different areas of Islamic humanities, including in the field of political theology, and has diverse and profound works and opinions that are worthy of analysis, review, and criticism in order to advance knowledge, especially in the field of Islamic political knowledge. On the other hand, political theology, which is still immature in terms of knowledge and is in the stages of emergence and development, is one of the main areas of political thought in Islam that covers many fundamental intellectual issues in terms of history and thought. Accordingly, the research has selected Ayatollah Javadi Amoli as one of the greatest active theorists of political theology who has presented important and influential views and has explored the development of his personality and scientific ideas, especially in political theology.
On this basis, the main question is what is the impact of the influential rival intellectual movements on Javadi Amoli's political theology and how is it? The hypothesis, based on Skinner's hermeneutic method and the discussion of his mental backgrounds, is that the seven knowledge-value movements of humanism, liberalism, secularism, pluralism, Marxism, hermeneutics, and the theory of the theoretical acquisition and expansion of Sharia, have influenced Javadi Amoli's political theology as part of his mental backgrounds and have had an important contribution to the development of his thoughts.
1. Research Background
No work has been done on the subject of the research as the influence of competing intellectual currents on the political theology of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli so far, and this research is the first work with this title and content. In terms of Javadi Amoli’s thought, there are some works with the title of his political thought in general. Also, in some works related to the analysis of the political thought of the seminaries or political thought after the revolution, such as some works by Abdolwahab Farati and Yahya Fawzi, some dimensions and objective and environmental contexts of political theology from the perspective of Javadi Amoli’s political thought have been addressed. Among the published works, the following titles can be mentioned: The book A Journey in the Political Thought of Ayatollah Abdullah Javadi Amoli (Mansournejad, 2011); thesis: A Study of the Social Theology of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli (Amiri, 2012); The Political Thought of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli (Mojtaba Zadeh, 2010); The Requirements of the Presence of Demonstrative Reason in the Political Knowledge of Ayatollah Javadi Amoli (Alavian and Zare Pour, 2018); The Convergence of Reason and Politics in the Transcendental Wisdom of Javadi Amoli Based on Skinner's Theory of Ideological Hermeneutics (Abbas Tabar, and Zare Pour Naghibi, 2019); A Critical Analysis of the Foundations of the Theory of Freedom in the Perspective of Isaiah Berlin with Emphasis on the Opinions of Allama Javadi Amoli (Nadari, 2011). However, none of these works directly addresses the dependent variable and the influence of opposing ideas, which is the innovation of this research.
3. Theoretical Framework; Skinner's Intentional Hermeneutics
The research uses part of the hermeneutic method of Quentin Skinner (born 1940), which is a moderate method compared to text-centric and context-centric approaches by selecting interventions and manipulations to analyze the problem. The constant variable of this research is that the intellectual, mental, scientific and social environment of the political theorist and his level of familiarity with various sciences are effective in his understanding of political speech and theological interpretation in general. The intellectual foundations of this view can be sought in discussions related to the science of hermeneutics. Various definitions of hermeneutics have been presented (Bolkhari, 1992; Palmer, 1998; Blabashir, 2001; Vaezi, 2004:27). For example, Schleiermacher considered it the art of understanding and believed that the interpretation of a text is constantly at risk of misunderstanding. Therefore, hermeneutics should be employed as a set of methodological rules to eliminate this risk.
Skinner's method can be used both in research on thought in the past and in the present, and on contemporary thinkers or thoughts. In some articles, some topics of Javadi Amoli's thought have been examined based on Skinner's method (Abbas Tabar and Zarepour Naghibi, 2019). Skinner pays attention to two points regarding the understanding of political thought (Skinner, 2014; Javid, 2014): First, what meaning does the thinker have in mind? This is usually possible by studying the author's writings or statements.
4. Conclusion
Competing intellectual currents are considered one of the elements and parts of the topic of mental backgrounds that influence the development of the thinker's thought. This effect is sometimes stronger and more prominent than even the favorable mental backgrounds in the development and crystallization of the thinker's views. In this regard, Javadi Amoli is a comprehensive thinker who actively deals with different levels of competing and opposing thoughts and is up-to-date in their analysis and criticism. There is no topic of thought that he does not have a detailed encounter with. The seven knowledge-value currents of humanism, liberalism, secularism, pluralism, Marxism, hermeneutics, and the theory of the theoretical contraction and expansion of Sharia are the most important competing intellectual currents that are reflected in Javadi Amoli's thoughts and works and have influenced his political discourse.
His highest level of qualitative and quantitative exposure is to the topic of hermeneutics, and of course, below it, to the theory of contraction and expansion; and his lowest exposure is to Marxism. With an analytical-critical attitude, Javadi Amoli recognizes humanism as meaning the originality of man and the orientation of human desires and disregard for the sublime, leading to a bias towards animalism and the needlessness and complete independence of man, both of which he condemns. He also considers liberalism to be an unfortunate incident and an empty mirage. "Separation of religion from social affairs" is his accepted definition of secularism, and he considers the comprehensive boundary of his definitions of it to be the rejection of the religious state. From his perspective, secular state, society, and religion are possible, but science is either atheistic or divine and cannot be secular. Pluralism of salvation, political pluralism, and social pluralism from the perspective of Javadi Amoli is acceptable and emphasized, but he does not consider epistemological pluralism to be correct in any way. In his view, "Marxism" and "humanism" are also considered religions and schools of thought for himself.
Javadi Amoli is flexible in relation to hermeneutics, the author-centered one who does not accept the death of the author, especially in sacred texts. From his point of view, interpretation without preconceptions is not possible, but the text's response is not always the signature of the preconceptions. While he is an advocate of not imposing the opinion of the mind and intellect on a religious text, he considers interpretive operations far from preconceptions to be sterile and impossible, and considers the existence of some preconceptions to be even useful and necessary. He also considers the hypothesis of contraction and expansion to have many slips and emphasizes the need to refine and revive it. He considers a minimal religion incapable of building civilization to be the fruit of the theory of contraction and expansion, and he has a serious criticism of it.
Javadi Amoli, political theolo theoretical expansion of Sharia.gy, competing scholarly movements, secularism, pluralism, theory of the acquisition and
ali ghazanfari; maryam hoseini
Abstract
One of the teachings of Islam is "excommunication," which means hostility towards the enemies of God and the people of falsehood, which, as a fundamental pillar of faith, shapes the religious identity of Muslims and has a special place in the Islamic belief system. On the other hand, Islam emphasizes ...
Read More
One of the teachings of Islam is "excommunication," which means hostility towards the enemies of God and the people of falsehood, which, as a fundamental pillar of faith, shapes the religious identity of Muslims and has a special place in the Islamic belief system. On the other hand, Islam emphasizes "tolerance", which means tolerance and respect for different beliefs and flexibility in interacting with others. Any misunderstanding of these concepts, especially in societies that enjoy cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity, can cause irreparable harm. Among these problems are social violence and the disruption of social cohesion. In such a situation, how can one act in a way that tolerates the beliefs of opponents while maintaining the doctrine of "excommunication"? What solutions do the Quran and narrations offer for creating a balance between these concepts in multicultural societies? This research seeks to answer these questions using an analytical-descriptive method based on the method of analyzing the content of verses and narrations. The achievement of this research shows that there are appropriate practical solutions in the teachings of the Quran and narrations to establish this balance. It seems that the correct understanding of these concepts, along with explaining the position, relationship, and scope of each, humanitarianism, good debate, respect for the beliefs of enemies, acceptance of diversity and differences, observance of the rights of others, etc., are among the effective solutions in creating social unity.
Extended Abstract
In the twenty-first century, human societies have been confronted with a pervasive phenomenon known as globalization, which has consequently led to the emergence and expansion of multicultural societies. While cultural diversity has served as a source of dynamism in such contexts, it has simultaneously generated numerous challenges.
It should be noted that the abandonment of the principle of "protection and exclusion" is one of the calamities of Islamic societies. Enemies have tried to portray the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims as cordial and the relationship between Muslims as hostile under various pretexts, and have spent huge amounts of money to achieve these goals. One of the significant predicaments within Islamic societies is the marginalization of the principle of tawallā wa tabarrā (affiliation and disavowal). Adversaries have striven, under various pretexts, to portray relations between Muslims and non-Muslims as intimate while depicting intra-Muslim relations as hostile, investing heavily to achieve these objectives.
It appears that the only viable path for mitigating the detrimental repercussions of these phenomena is through recourse to Islamic teachings such as peace and forbearance, and prioritizing them over notions such as tabarrā and withdrawal. The concept of "tolerance" means respect for different beliefs and flexibility in dealing with them, and it will be a beginning for peaceful coexistence and the creation of a peaceful and dynamic society that is not subject to ideological monopolization and that, while preserving the principles, is based on commonalities. Forbearance entails respect for divergent beliefs and flexibility in dealing with others; it forms the foundation of peaceful coexistence and the establishment of a calm and dynamic society free from ideological exclusivism, built upon shared principles while safeguarding essential tenets. At the same time, one of the central doctrines of Islam is tabarrā—enmity toward the adversaries of God and falsehood—which constitutes a cornerstone of faith and shapes the religious identity of Muslims, occupying a privileged position in Islamic theology. However, this is only one dimension. On the other hand, Islam strongly emphasizes forbearance, understood as tolerance, respect for different beliefs, and flexibility in interaction. Any misinterpretation of these concepts, particularly in societies characterized by cultural, religious, and ethnic plurality, can produce irreparable harm, trigger social violence, and ultimately undermine social cohesion.
This study, conducted through a descriptive-analytical approach and content analysis of Qurʾānic verses and traditions, seeks to address these very questions. For this purpose, the terms mudārā (forbearance) and tabarrā (disavowal) were examined lexically. The findings show that mudārā derives either from darī, denoting knowledge obtained through unconventional means, or from darā, meaning "to eliminate or repel". Thus, when derived from darī, it implies winning over opponents through gentleness and kindness; when derived from darā, it signifies dispelling hostility through compassion. Ultimately, mudārā means adopting leniency in speech and conduct, enduring differences and difficulties in relations, without implying weakness or submission. By contrast, tabarrā signifies renunciation and distancing, motivated by detestation of what is deemed blameworthy. Technically, it refers to disassociation from the enemies of God and the adversaries of the saints of religion, a stance clearly emphasized in the Qurʾān and traditions. The Qurʾān highlights disavowal of polytheism and the Prophet’s declaration of innocence toward his opponents.
The term multiculturalism denotes a structure composed of diverse cultural groups in which plurality is recognized and differences are positively embraced. It must be acknowledged, however, that most societies are not ethnically or culturally homogeneous, and divergent beliefs often engender disharmony, leaving such societies vulnerable. In addition to defining the key terms, the relationship between mudārā and tabarrā required clarification, as this has profound implications for shaping future approaches. For this reason, the researcher has explained this relationship. Accordingly, the study demonstrates that proper understanding of these concepts, along with an accurate delineation of their scope and interrelationship, constitutes the main factor in dispelling discord within culturally plural societies. After lexical analysis and conceptual clarification, Qurʾānic and prophetic strategies are explored, which occupy a substantial portion of religious sources. These include: philanthropy, respect for others’ beliefs, protection of rights, noble character, patience in facing hostility, adaptability and kindness, acceptance of diversity, consultation and cooperation, pursuit of unity and brotherhood, peacemaking and reconciliation, engaging in fair argumentation, justice and equity, forgiveness, leniency, and clemency.
It is crucial to note that the Qurʾān acknowledges only God Almighty as the absolute guardian (walī). This fundamental principle, inferred from Qurʾān 42:9 9 of Surah Ash-Shura, ensures that all individuals recognize themselves under a single divine authority, thereby fostering unity and equality. Regarding this, the Qurʾān states that benevolence and justice toward those who do not fight against Muslims in religion are permissible, while prohibition applies solely to those who wage religious warfare; forging alliances with such adversaries is condemned as injustice (Qurʾān 60:8–9). God says about this issue in the Quran: There is no obstacle to doing good and justice to those who do not fight you in religion, but it is forbidden to do so to those who fight you in religion, and whoever establishes relations with them is a wrongdoer and a tyrant. Similarly, Imam ʿAlī (a) declared: “People are of two kinds: either your brothers in faith or your equals in humanity. The term "people like you" implies that there is another principle called tolerance in human societies, especially Islamic societies. The expression equals in humanity implies the existence of another principle—mudārā—within human societies, especially Islamic ones, that should not be neglected. Social balance and harmony depend on its observance.
The findings of this research indicate that Islam offers a significant body of guidance concerning the seemingly contradictory notions of tabarrā and mudārā, referred to here as Qurʾānic and traditional strategies. Commitment to these strategies, due to their practical and realistic orientation, ensures equilibrium between the two concepts. Consequently, there exists no inherent contradiction between them. Furthermore, the study proposes multiple practical solutions for reconciling these notions, each contributing effectively to reducing tensions and promoting social unity and vitality.
)
