Comparative Shiʿi Theology

Abstract Raj'a, defined as the return of individuals to life after death, is a significant doctrine in Abrahamic religions and is closely associated with the concept of divine justice. Despite the focus given to the return of the dead by various religions, a comprehensive comparative understanding of its significance in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity has yet to be fully developed. This research aims to analyze the concept of return within the context of divine justice, highlighting both the differences and similarities across these three religions. The research aims to identify the mechanisms of Raj'a and to explain how these mechanisms are reflected in various models of divine justice. The research method involves a qualitative analysis of religious and theological texts, complemented by a comparative approach that examines various religions and their philosophical and theological frameworks. The findings indicate that, in Islam, the concept of return is integral to a system of moral, historical, penal, and promise-based justice. In Judaism, return and resurrection serve as means to fulfill covenantal justice and historical promises. In Christianity, the second coming of Christ represents the ultimate stage of enacting redemptive and Christ-centered justice on a global and cosmic scale. The research concludes that the return in the Abrahamic religions, despite differing in time, scope, and nature, is integral to the realization of divine justice. A comparative study of these returns offers a deeper understanding of the relationship between morality, history, and divine promises.

Abstract Imam al-Sajjad ('a), during one of the most critical periods in Islamic history—the post-Karbala era under the despotic rule of the Umayyad regime—took significant steps to preserve and expand the school of Shi‘ism through the strategic use of taqiyya (dissimulation). With a profound understanding of the prevailing political and social pressures, he employed taqiyya not merely as a means of personal protection but as a calculated method to safeguard Shi‘a teachings, preserve the knowledge of the Ahl al-Bayt ('a), and lay the cultural and intellectual foundations for future generations. This study, based on a descriptive-analytical approach and library research method, examines the role of taqiyya in Imam al-Sajjad’s ('a) struggle and illustrates how he utilized this approach to counter political and ideological oppression while promoting religious teachings, training disciples, and compiling elevated Islamic knowledge. In the final section, the paper addresses a common Sunni objection regarding the apparent contradiction and duality in taqiyya-related traditions, providing a documented and analytical response. Ultimately, this research seeks to demonstrate that taqiyya, in the context of Imam al-Sajjad’s ('a) life, functioned not only as a defensive tactic but also as part of an active, deliberate cultural and religious strategy. 1 . Introduction Imam Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn (ʿa) played a crucial role in preserving and reinforcing the foundations of Shiism during one of the most tumultuous and repressive periods in Islamic history. In the aftermath of the tragic events of Karbala and amidst the brutal oppression and extensive surveillance enforced by the Umayyad regime, Imam Al-Sajjād (ʿa) implemented a series of deliberate and strategic measures to protect the ideological, religious, and cultural heritage of the Shia community. Central to his approach was the practice of Taqiyyah—a form of precautionary dissimulation employed under duress—which not only ensured his personal safety and that of his followers, but also facilitated the discreet transmission and consolidation of Shia teachings in highly restrictive circumstances. This article aims to explore in depth the ways in which Imam Al-Sajjād(ʿa) utilized Taqiyyah as a core strategy to ensure the survival, resilience, and subtle expansion of the Shia school during an era marked by political tyranny and religious distortion. By examining the historical, theological, and sociopolitical dimensions of the Imam’s actions, this study illuminates how Taqiyyah functioned not merely as a defensive tactic, but as a proactive and purposeful method for cultural and doctrinal preservation. Drawing on both Shiite and Sunni textual sources, the research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology within a library-based framework to critically assess the multifaceted applications of Taqiyyah in the life and legacy of Imam Sajjād (‘a). The study illustrates how this principle enabled him to engage in religious education, develop spiritual literature, and train a discreet yet influential group of students and narrators, all while avoiding direct confrontation with the ruling authorities. Furthermore, the article addresses one of the key polemical concerns frequently raised by Sunni scholars regarding the perceived duplicity in the practice of Taqiyyah. By contextualizing these critiques within both theological discourse and historical necessity, the paper clarifies that Taqiyyah, as employed by Imam Al-Sajjād (‘a), was neither hypocritical nor deceptive but rather a rational and principled response to the existential threats faced by the Shia community. Ultimately, this study emphasizes that the practice of Taqiyyah during the Imamate of Imam Al-Sajjād (‘a) was a sophisticated and multidimensional instrument of resistance. It not only protected lives and religious identity but also facilitated the long-term endurance and intellectual development of Shiism during one of its most vulnerable phases. By reevaluating this strategy through a fresh academic lens, the article contributes to a deeper understanding of the Imam’s campaign and the broader role of Taqiyyah in shaping Islamic history. Research Question(s) What is Taqiyyah, and what strategy did Imam Al-Sajjād ('a) employ in its implementation? What are the narrations from the Imams throughout history concerning the practice or non-practice of Taqiyyah? What accounts for the discrepancies in the narrations regarding Taqiyyah? Literature Review Various studies have explored the life of Imam Al-Sajjād ('a) and examined his religious, social, and educational dimensions. However, a comprehensive and coherent analysis of the use of Taqiyyah as a combat strategy in the context of the political and social conditions of his time has not yet been undertaken. This study aims to investigate, based on reliable historical and narrative sources, one of the most significant combat methods employed by Imam Al-Sajjād ('a) through Taqiyyah. It will demonstrate how he effectively preserved the Shiite school from numerous threats and fortified its scientific and cultural foundations during critical circumstances by leveraging this strategic tool. Additionally, this study addresses a prevalent concern among Sunnis regarding the perceived duality in the hadiths of Taqiyyah, an issue that has not been rigorously examined to date. Methodology This research employs a library methodology and a descriptive-analytical approach to examine Shia and Sunni traditions. Results In the challenging political and social climate during the Umayyad rule, Imam Al-Sajjād (ʿa) played a crucial role in preserving and expanding the Shiite school of thought. He employed the doctrine of Taqiyyah and utilized indirect methods such as prayer, mourning, freeing slaves, and educating students. Through these efforts, he not only safeguarded Shiism from potential destruction but also, by nurturing a new generation of scholars and loyal followers, laid the foundation for a significant scientific and cultural movement that flourished during the reigns of the subsequent Imams ('a). Overall, Imam Al-Sajjād (ʿa) strategy during the era of Taqiyyah stands out as one of the most effective and astute approaches for preserving the Shiite school against oppressive regimes. This strategy remains a valuable lesson for navigating difficult circumstances and safeguarding religious principles today. The narrations attributed to Imam Al-Sajjād ('a) address both the permissibility and non-permissibility of Taqiyyah. The presence of these seemingly conflicting narrations has raised doubts among some religious groups. It is essential to note that, in the view of the Imam of Imams ('a), Taqiyyah is a conditional and limited practice; these narrations do not indicate a contradiction but rather highlight its various contexts. Consequently, Taqiyyah is obligatory in certain situations and may be abandoned in others. A proper understanding of these parameters is key to resolving any ambiguities.

Abstract . Introduction
The life of ʿAlī Ibn-e al-Ḥusayn al-Sajjād (‘a) occurred in one of the most challenging times for the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and the Shiite community, because many restrictions were imposed by the oppressive Al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya rulers to prevent communication with the Imam (‘a). He was unable to communicate directly with the individuals. As a result, he conveyed many of the basic Islamic teachings to the people through supplications. A collection of supplications was thus compiled, dictated by him and transcribed by his sons, Imam Muḥammad Ibn-e ʿAlī al-Bāqir (‘a) and Zayd.
This collection of supplications encompasses core Islamic teachings across various aspects, and it has been made accessible to the Shiite community and admirers of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a). The supplications have been transmitted by numerous narrators through various chains of transmission of a tradition over different eras. In Shiite scholarship, the claim of Tawātur regarding its narrators has been established. ʿAllāma al-Majlisī cites a total of 56,100 narrators for the Al-Ṣaḥīfa (ʿAllāma al-Majlisī:1388,61/110). However, today, some Sunni scholars, such as Nasser al-Qaffari in his book "al- ḥaqīqa Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya", (al-Qaffari: 1426, 8) and Abdullah al-Rabat in his book called “Ali ibn al-Husayn: A Critical Biography” (Al-Rabbat:2021, 117-137) have sought to undermine the Al-Ṣaḥīfa by questioning its narrators and chains of transmission of a tradition.
The primary reason for this is the presence of unreliable narrators, such as Abu Al-Mufaddil Shaybani and Ibn-e Akhi Ṭahir Alavi, in the chains of transmission of a tradition. These individuals were known as forgers during a portion of their lives, which raises the possibility that they may have fabricated the Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya. However, this claim is inaccurate concerning the Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya page, as investigations have established that the two individuals were not accused of forgery during the period in which they had access to the page. Furthermore, there is substantial evidence to support their narrative. It is important to acknowledge that Sunni scholars have significantly contributed to the preservation of the Al-Ṣaḥīfa. Notably, one of the documents of the manuscripts was made by the Sunni scholar Murtaḍá al-Zabīdī Hanafi, and one of the manuscripts was authored by Abū Bakr al-Kirmani, an al-Shāfiʿī scholar. It is important to note that throughout history, Sunni scholars have adopted a distinctive approach to the Al-Ṣaḥīfa, consistently citing and praising this work. The introduction and validation of the documents, narrators, and manuscripts is a primary objective of this research, undertaken to address and refute the criticisms that have been raised.

Research Question (s)

1-The presence of unknown narrators within the chain of narrators of Umayr Ibn-e Mutawakkil raises significant concerns regarding the reliability of their narrations (Al-Rabbat: 2021, p123).
2- The inclusion of certain narrators, such as Abu al-Mufaddal al-Shaybani and Ibn Akhiya Tahir al-Alawi, who are known for their forgery, further undermines the trustworthiness of the narratives in the Sahifa (Al-Rabbat: 2021, pp. 124- 130).
3- The lack of credibility attributed to the Sahifa among Sunni scholars, along with their subsequent rejection of the text, constitutes an additional basis for questioning its authenticity (Al-Rabbat: 2021, p117).

Literature Review

In recent years, very few studies have been conducted on the introduction and validation of the chains of transmission, copies, and narrators of the Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya. Only one article has been written: Pahlavan, Mansour (1378), "Chains of Transmission and the Sheykhs of Narrators," Journal of Hadith Sciences, No. 12. This article introduces a portion of the narrators of Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya but does not address the issue of unreliable narrators or their validation. The present study aims to comprehensively introduce the chains of transmission of a tradition, copies, and narrators, as well as to validate the unreliable narrators, thereby establishing their reliability in narrating the Sahifa. This research seeks to address and refute the doubts raised by Sunni scholars, resulting in a thorough examination of the subject.

Methodology

A descriptive, analytical, and critical approach, with reference to primary Shiite and Sunni texts.

Conclusion

The research conducted in this study has yielded the following conclusions:
Three documents about the Sahifa al-Sajjadiyah have been identified. Umayr Ibn-e Al-Mutawakkil is notable for having the most narrators and manuscripts. Initially, six narrators directly received the Sahifa from this document, all of whom are esteemed and trusted scholars from both Shia and Sunni traditions. These scholars made the Sahifa accessible to other distinguished scholars, resulting in a large group of narrators who dedicated themselves to preserving the Sahifa, thus creating valuable copies that are now available. Sunni scholars Murtaza Zubaidi and Abu Bakr al-Kirmani are mentioned for memorizing the Sahifa. The narrators known as forgers include Abu al-Mufadl al-Shaybani and Ibn Ahi Tahir al-Alawi. Notably, these individuals were relied upon by distinguished scholars for the narration of the Sahifa. The evidence collected regarding them indicates that they were not labeled as forgers during the period when they had access to the Al-Ṣaḥīfa, thus affirming the authenticity of their narration. Furthermore, prominent Sunni scholars have consistently cited the Al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya, regarding it as a text of significant merit, and have acknowledged its remarkable features.

Abstract The situation in Iran at the end of the 8th century of Hijri was accompanied by events that had an impact on the cultural and intellectual issues of that time. With the establishment of the Safavid government, Shiism was declared as the official religion and entered the social currents, and Shiite scholars and intellectuals also came out of the passive state. With the introduction of rational thought into these currents, new opinions emerged among sages and theologians. In the tenth century, divine wisdom faced fundamental changes, and Islamic philosophy, which was based on Shia teachings, was created by Mulla Sadra and inspired by the thoughts of mystics. And the previous sages entered a new era. By introducing new issues in philosophy, Mulla Sadra founded a new school called Hekmat al-Mota'aliyeh, and with this school, the process of making the intellect legitimate was put on a new path and ended the differences between rationalists and esotericists about religion. Mulla Sadra resolved disputes with a new style. Using his philosophical method, he tried to explain, consolidate and defend beliefs and created a kind of philosophical discourse, and in this way, using the reasoning methods of Masha, the personal experiences of mystics, and with new interpretations of the verses of the Qur'an and the foundations of belief. He was able to create a new way of philosophical theology, that is, philosophical theology, after him, his students continued this path. And each of them played an important role in the flourishing of Mulla Sadra's philosophical theology. This research, while examining different approaches and periods of theological science, has pointed out the important position of Mulla Sadra in bringing this approach to its peak and explained this problem with a descriptive-analytical method